Addiction Treatment: A Psychiatrist’s Perspective
David A. Gross, MD, Distinguished Fellow of the American Psychiatric Association

Abstract:

This paper will review the clinical, empirical and heuristic observations provided by many years of front line treatment of patients with severe addictive disorders. This discussion would not be complete if it did not include some of the historical challenges facing a psychiatrist trying to serve this unique population. For reasons outlined in this paper, acceptance by the recovering community can be problematic.

Of critical importance is the concept of the multi-diagnosis approach to victims of substance abuse. Essentially gone are the days of the pure alcoholic. Substance abuse comorbid with other major psychiatric disorders has become the norm. Substance abuse and co-occurring bipolar disorder, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, social anxiety disorder, other anxiety disorders, insomnia and psychosis will be reviewed. The toxic impact of illicit drugs on the brain will be stressed. Clinical cases will be reviewed in throughout this paper with reference to the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for special patient populations.

The co-occurrence (comorbidity) of substance abuse with other psychiatric disorders has been well known for decades. Front line addiction clinicians are very much aware that modern treatment challenges are far removed from what was faced thirty years ago.  The pure alcoholic is now an endangered species.  Most hospitalized addicts present with a potpourri of psychiatric illnesses in addition to their substance abuse disorder. (1)

This complex addict type has historically been called a dual diagnosis patient, someone who has a drug problem and a parallel non-substance abuse psychiatric illness.  It is the contention of this author that the dual diagnosis approach is simplistic and often misleading.  This population should be more accurately identified as multi-diagnosis patient set. The bio-psycho-social systems model (2) provides an excellent and handy evaluation template.  In addition to substance problems, multi-diagnosis patients suffer from a variety of other psychiatric disorders.  It is not uncommon to treat a depressed cocaine addict with an undiagnosed premorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who early on in her addiction found that the cocaine normalized her ADHD symptoms.  Or, consider the anxious male alcoholic with several DUI (driving under the influence) convictions who upon closer examination tells you that he has been incapacitated by social anxiety disorder since grade school.  The first time this person consumed an alcoholic beverage in a social setting his troublesome anxiety symptoms vanished. Then there is the unhappy opiate addict who finally acknowledges the presence of chronic depressive symptoms emanating from childhood neglect and trauma. The opiates provided brain numbing relief from her trauma related psychic pain. 

The multi-diagnosis approach requires that we consider other bio-psycho-social variables such as the impact of family of origin dysfunction/trauma, non-psychiatric medical illness (HIV, hepatitis C, brain damage, malnutrition, etc.) and ongoing current environmental stressors.  When we construct the person’s entire constellation of problems, one can readily appreciate the utility of the multi-diagnosis model. The treating clinician can then utilize a systems approach in designing an appropriate treatment plan. 

This discussion raises a number of clinical challenges. What problem should we address first, given the realities of 21st century insurance reimbursement and evidence based treatment efficacy?  Of our patient’s myriad problem list, which one(s) can be identified as critical for recovery? How do we prioritize the treatment plan?  Given the person’s lengthy and complicated past history, what can we realistically accomplish in the treatment timeframe provided?  What clinical disciplines and treatment modalities must be employed to allow for a cost effective outcome? Are psychotropic pharmaceuticals indicated, and what are the potential problems using these agents in this population? Is helping our patient become drug free sufficient to ensure ongoing sobriety?  Is honest participation in the 12 step program sufficient?  This author hopes to examine these issues in the course of this paper.

This paper will also examine the historical differences between the approach of organized psychiatry and 12 step recovery (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous), the importance of a multi-disciplinary and multi-modality treatment model, special patient populations that pose additional treatment challenges and the use of potentially problematic classes of medication in the addict population.  We will close with a “lessons learned” section that may be surprisingly simple in its conclusions.

A. The Nature of the Problem
We cannot begin to examine the psychiatric treatment of the drug addict until we review the roots of psychiatry and organized twelve step recovery groups.  Unfortunately, the history of these two groups has not been one of harmony.  Organized psychiatry tended to view Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) as a cult-like, overly religious, self help entity based on little scientific rationale. We were skeptical of the followers of Bill despite our dogmatic adherence to Freud’s teachings. The theories of Dr. Freud were mostly conceptual and would not meet evidence based standards in today’s world.   Psychiatry established a professional (one could even say elitist) attitude and established a schism with a recovery community that relied on lay leaders who were clean and sober advising those who were attempting the same.  Rarely did we communicate with 12 step sponsors or understand their role. We considered 12 step sponsors to be untrained amateur therapists who should not be placed in such powerful clinical positions.  We utilized language that was highly technical and lost in translation to those who were not members of our professional community.

To make matters even worse, medical school substance abuse education was dismal, if existent. Graduating physicians were not prepared to diagnose or treat addiction. The 12 step community became horrified by the missed diagnoses in the offices of the general practitioner or by the prescription of addicting medications to patients who regularly self-medicated with alcoholic beverages.  Physician attempts at the pharmacologic management of known substance abusers often resulted in the prescription of agents that could be abused or result in dependency.  Our patients often appeared over-medicated almost as if they had relapsed and were high on drugs. 

The recovery community became wary of psychiatric interventions and viewed our treatments as dangerous obstacles towards recovery.  Thus, until very recently, most 12 step thought leaders were emphatically opposed to the prescription of any mood altering drug for their members.  Psychiatrists had a difficult time understanding this across the board attitude because we knew that many of our pharmaceuticals were not known to be addictive or abused. Traditional mood altering agents included antidepressants and mood stabilizers. Nevertheless, antidepressants, safe (non-addicting) anti-anxiety agents, antipsychotic agents and mood stabilizing agents were still frowned upon by traditional 12 step organizations. This quandary also affected the recovering addict desperately trying to stay drug free and embrace the 12 step model while actively suffering from the travails of untreated psychiatric anxiety, mood or psychotic disorders.

Fortunately, the schism between organized psychiatry and 12 step recovery has narrowed during the past several decades.  A number of factors have contributed to this positive change.  First, the ongoing failure of traditional psychiatric approaches to addiction treatment has had a sobering influence on psychiatric thought leaders.  At the same time, addiction recidivism in the ranks of the 12 step community has been disheartening. Despite its failures, 12 step successes have been impressive and attracted the interest and respect of physicians.  Advances in our knowledge of the neurobiology of addiction have made its medical basis incontrovertible.(3) Most importantly, the lay public has grown to understand that drug abuse is a medical biological illness and not just a social or moral malady. As the public has been educated, this knowledge has become integrated into the 12 step philosophy. 

On a practical note, the literal explosion of the recovery industry and the formation of hospital and residential based treatment programs have resulted in the involvement of medical directors, medical consultants and medical model guidelines.  Special licenses and certifications have become necessary and usually require the involvement of medical model treatment planning. Addiction professional licenses are now commonly under the purview of state health regulatory statutes and boards.  These changes have facilitated a more efficient bio-psycho-social approach.  Insurance reimbursement has required utilization review and employment of problem oriented records.  This has moved the field closer and closer to one that is evidence based.  Both sides of this schism have learned that we need to work together.

B. Treatment of Special Patient Populations

1.  Introduction
It has been common practice to consult on a patient in early recovery on a number of psychotropic medications and state that they were placed on these agents because of a major psychiatric disorder that was diagnosed before they entered sobriety.  It is then not uncommon to discover that this individual provides no active evidence for psychiatric disease symptoms during sobriety. This certainly could be due to the excellent remission afforded by the prescribed psychotropic agents. In retrospect, however, it may turn out that the symptoms that led to the original psychiatric diagnosis reflected a malfunctioning brain that was under the toxic influence of the drug(s) of abuse.  When the brain’s drug effects finally clear and the brain returns to a healthier state, the pathological pseudo-psychiatric disorder no longer is present. The psychiatrist then has to determine if the complicated medication regimen can be simplified and/or discontinued.

The practice of psychiatry has the disadvantage of not being able to use objective laboratory testing like blood tests or brain imaging to definitively rule in primary non-substance abuse psychiatric diagnoses.  Instead, we remain physicians who have to rely on the patient’s subjective history and presentation of illness.  Genetic pedigree assessment is helpful and provides data on our patient’s predisposition risks.  Ancillary history from family members and significant others is invaluable, for what our patient observes and understands may be very different from what others perceive. Obtaining medical records from previous treating clinicians is also very helpful in gathering an adequate database. There are a number of clinical rating scales that can be utilized to guide diagnostic impressions (4). During the evaluation process it is absolutely essential to determine if the individual’s core non-substance abuse psychiatric symptoms preceded his drug abuse or developed during the course of the addiction. The presence of pathological non-substance abuse psychiatric symptoms during a drug free window can be helpful in making a primary non-substance abuse psychiatric diagnosis. That being said, there must be a word of caution here.  Duration of the drug free window is the critical variable. Unless the drug free window is long enough to allow for the neurotoxic effects of the drug to clear, any mood, anxiety, behavioral or thought disorder diagnosis might be a false positive conclusion.
 
In the presence of active substance abuse, especially polysubstance abuse, all diagnostic conclusions must be placed on hold when one attempts to make a primary psychiatric non-substance abuse diagnosis. In this scenario, any apparent non-substance abuse psychiatric disorder represents a clinical condition that is, until proven otherwise, secondary to drug abuse-induced brain dysfunction. To be absolutely certain, a three to six month window of sobriety is required to be able to accurately rule out or rule in a primary psychiatric problem other than the substance disorder. This time period allows for the brain to hopefully return to a healthier state.

2. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
The multi-diagnosis patient presents a challenging chicken-or-egg dilemma.  What came first, the addiction or the non-substance abuse psychiatric disorder? Did the latter cause the former, or was the opposite the case? ADHD provides an excellent case study.  As previously mentioned, it is not surprising to discover that the newly diagnosed adult with ADHD is a recovering cocaine addict. Individuals with ADHD suffer from core deficits in executive function (5). They have great difficulty with future planning, delaying gratification, dealing with multi-step problems, and evaluating the impact of their actions.  Besides inattention, distractibility and disorganization, ADHD often leads to impulsivity and extreme hyperactivity. Why choose cocaine as one’s drug of choice? The answer lies in a paradox; instead of being activated and stimulated by cocaine, the ADHD brain is surprisingly calmed and focused. If cocaine were not illegal, short lasting, terribly addicting and dangerous, it would be one of the better pharmacologic interventions for ADHD. When a cocaine addict informs you that during the early days of the addiction the cocaine helped her feel “normal,” think ADHD.
                 
Comorbid ADHD with or without hyperactivity is an early recovery clinical challenge. This disorder is often diagnosed for the first time in a young recovering adult whose hyperactivity, impulsivity, conduct problems and poor grades had been previously attributed to maladaptive behavior and personality traits. As suggested earlier in this paper, cocaine and other illicit stimulants are commonly abused and exert paradoxical effects similar to the traditionally prescribed psychostimulants. Treatment becomes problematic because of the significant addiction risks of the psychostimulants (methylphenidate, methylphenidate oros, dexmethylphenidate, methylphenidate CD, dextroamphetamine, mixed amphetamine salts, and lisdexamfetamine). Atmoxetine is the first non-stimulant approved by the FDA for the treatment of ADHD and is a good choice in this instance (6).

As important as the careful prescription of medication for the ADHD adult is the use of focused psychotherapy and ADHD coaching.  Coping with the life failures that can emanate from this illness can lead to low self esteem, problematic relationships and self fulfilling prophetic failure.  Psychotherapy needs to address these issues and correct faulty self assumptions.  ADHD coaching is invaluable and highlights the importance of time management, organizational skill development and life coaching. Individuals with ADHD can successfully compensate for many of their difficulties, foregoing the need for medication. 

3. Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder, also known as manic depressive illness, is marked by mood instability. It is almost as if the mood regulatory centers of the brain no longer exert their usually healthy control over emotional expression and reactivity. There can be pathological emotional reactivity as well as spontaneous fluctuations of mood. The classic bipolar patient has cycles of mania (characterized by elated mood, euphoria, grandiosity, excessive spending, hypersexuality, impulsivity, paranoia and other signs of psychosis) that can last days to weeks or longer, usually followed by a depressive crash (marked by sad mood, low energy, increased sleep, increased appetite, negative hopeless suicidal thinking and great difficulty in maintaining day to day function) (8). There are periods of normal mood (euthymia), and in the classic bipolar patient there are usually four or less manias or depressions annually. 

The frighteningly pathological mood swings of the cocaine abuser can easily lead to a misdiagnosis of bipolar disorder (7). The manic-like high of active cocaine abuse is usually followed by a depressive crash during the cocaine withdrawal period.  Cocaine withdrawal-based depression can lead to suicidal thinking or attempt. The highs and lows of the cocaine abuser present very much like cyclic bipolar manic and depressive mood states. This is especially the case if the addict is secretive about his drug abuse.

To further complicate matters, individuals with bipolar disorder often self medicate with a variety of illicit substances. Sometimes the self medication is an attempt to maximize or maintain the manic high. Stimulating drugs like cocaine, amphetamine or ecstasy (MDMA) are examples. These agents are also abused to bring on a mania, for despite all the trouble mania can cause in a person’s life, it can be sorely missed. Bipolar depression is an emotionally painful state and can lead to the abuse of alcohol, opiates or benzodiazepines to lessen the pain. These scenarios create an unfortunate paradox. Individuals suffering from severe psychiatric illness self medicate with drugs of abuse rather than taking the therapeutic medications designed to help minimize their emotional pain.  Mood stabilizers (anticonvulsants and lithium) are the treatment of choice for bipolar disorder.  The goal of treatment is the prevention of mood cycling. This is no easy task when there is active substance abuse complicating the clinical picture.

Of course, substance abuse and primary psychiatric disorders can co-occur, making recovery even more challenging. It is absolutely essential that both conditions are treated aggressively and simultaneously. When substance abuse remains active, it is very difficult to determine the effectiveness of competent psychotherapy and/or carefully chosen pharmacotherapy. A well respected colleague once announced that her recovery from alcoholism could never have been accomplished without her bipolar disorder being diagnosed and then treated.  Her ongoing mood swings promoted the persistent intake of alcohol in a vain attempt to calm herself. Her alcohol intake further exacerbated her cyclic mood disorder leading to a harrowing vicious cycle. One also has to be concerned about the toxic effects of drug abuse on the brain’s chemical and physical milieu.

4. Social Anxiety Disorder
It is no surprise to discover that individuals with social anxiety disorder have a high incidence of alcohol abuse or dependence (9).  Social anxiety disorder is marked by a pathological fear of social settings. Sufferers will report that as long as they can remember they have been morbidly worrying what other people think of them, expecting that they will make a fool of themselves or be humiliated in social gatherings.  Physical anxiety is common, including rapid heart beat, shortness of breath, muscle tension, headaches, etc. Panic attacks can occur and often raise the level of incapacitation to an even higher level. Avoidance of social gatherings is commonplace, leading to school absenteeism and self imposed isolation. 

Remarkably, social anxiety disorder patients will tell you that the first time they consumed alcohol in a social setting the drink normalized their incapacitating anxiety and enabled them to finally feel normal for the first time in their lives.  As one would expect, tolerance and dependence to alcohol soon develop and lead to the unmanageable state of alcoholism.  Individuals with social anxiety disorder will also self medicate with opiates and minor tranquilizers (benzodiazepines like diazepam, alprazolam) in addition to alcohol. The clinical presentation is further complicated by wide fluctuations of the abused drug in the brain leading to withdrawal states that can mimic the underlying anxiety disorder. The clinical management of social anxiety disorder requires the judicious use of cognitive behavioral therapy and carefully selected (avoiding addictive) psychotropic agents.

5. Depression
The presence of depressive symptoms in addicts in early recovery is a common presenting psychiatric complaint. Typical depressive symptoms consist of increased or decreased sleep, sad mood, negative hopeless/helpless thinking, social isolation, increased or decreased appetite, low energy, reduced pleasure responsiveness, etc (10). Do these symptoms represent a premorbid (pre-existing) depressive state that was masked by the effects of the drug abuse, or does this clinical condition represent the appearance of a new illness?  If the person’s history suggests that this depression is new, are we observing the appearance of an additional (to the addiction) psychiatric disorder, or could this mood state reflect drug abuse induced changes in brain biology?  To date, the answer still eludes us. Nevertheless, depression in early recovery is not a rare complaint. If the depressed mood is not a transient situational state, it should be treated with appropriate psychotherapy and/or pharmacotherapy.

6. Other anxiety disorders
Other anxiety states can severely interfere with and complicate the recovery process.  Examples include obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder with and without agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, post traumatic stress disorder and phobic disorders. The specific treatment of these disorders is beyond the scope of this paper, but suffice it to say that careful use of non-addictive pharmacologic agents and intensive cognitive behavioral therapy can make a world of difference for these patients. 

On a different note, addicts will tell you that their current subjective state of anxiety is the direct result of having to live drug-free for the first time in many years.  This can be a most disconcerting and anxiety provoking experience. They often reveal that they have no idea how to function in the world when sober.  Addicts entering a sober lifestyle may not be able to recall what it was like to function in a world free of alcohol or drugs.  A life without drug abuse becomes uncharted territory full of a whole host of frightening unknowns.  Relationships, employment and even having fun become foreign experiences in the drug-free state. Human beings consistently experience fear and anxiety in response to the unknown.  Psychosocial interventions and life coaching can assist the recovering addict to overcome these fears. However, like depression, the appearance of anxiety symptoms in early recovery can be an indication of a pre-existing anxiety disorder. Prompt treatment intervention is critical with the appropriate application of pharmacotherapy and tailored cognitive behavioral therapy. 

Anxiety disorders create a significant treatment challenge due to the problems in prescribing a time tested, anti-anxiety medication class, the benzodiazepines (minor like diazepam, alprazolam, lorazepam, and clonazepam) agents.  Benzodiazepine use is routinely contraindicated in the recovery population. These medications have significant abuse potential and can result in dependence and tolerance.  They can open the flood gates to relapse and loss of recovery.  At the same time, untreated anxiety  can be so incapacitating that the symptoms themselves can lead to drug relapse. Without effective treatment our very symptomatic patient may go out and abuse (self medicate). For the treating physician this creates a classic double bind.  Prescribe these drugs, and you alienate yourself and your patient from the organized recovery sector while, at the same time, you seriously run the risk of inducing an iatrogenic (treatment induced) drug relapse. There is no straightforward solution to this dilemma. Benzodiazepines must be avoided at all costs. Use of psychotherapy and, most importantly, cognitive behavioral therapy can result in significant benefit. Working actively with the individual on stress control techniques, helping them to simplify their lives and avoiding stressful situations in early recovery are productive paths.  Minimizing caffeine, maximizing exercise, protecting sleep patterns and improving life balance in general are likewise helpful. Treating the anxiety disorders with appropriate pharmacologic agents can be very effective.  Promoting ongoing commitment to and involvement in 12 step recovery is critical.  One should not ignore the crucial importance of the support of the 12 step fellowship.

From a pharmacologic treatment perspective it is helpful to divide anxiety symptoms into somatic (physical) and psychic (mental) forms.  Somatic anxiety represents heightened activity of the part of the brain that controls heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature and peristalsis, all components of the adaptive flight or fight survival mechanism\s.  Psychic anxiety refers to apprehension, panic, fear, preoccupation and worry. Beta blockers like propranolol can dramatically limit the effect of somatic anxiety symptoms. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, escitalopram, citalopram, fluvoxamiine and the selective serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) venlafaxine, and  duloxetine are beneficial for many of these conditions. Buspirone is a non-addicting minor tranquilizer that can also be helpful.  Off-label (an indication other than indicated by the FDA) use of medication has become popular in this population. One example is the off-label use of gabapentin for anxiety and sleep; similarly, trazodone and quetiapine have been used off-label for sleep difficulties (11).

7. Insomnia
Insomnia is an especially vexing problem for addicts in recovery.  Once again, the challenge is to determine if the sleep problem is due to a brain still reeling from the effects of the abused drug(s) or a primary sleep disorder. Sleep mechanisms will generally return to a normative state once the brain fully recovers from drug abuse.  Until that time, treatment can certainly be challenging.  Benzodiazepine agents are out of the question.  Although not members of the benzodiazepine family and determined to be non-addicting by the FDA, agents like zolpidem, zaleplon, and eszopiclone have been touted as safe and effective for the insomnia of early recovery. There is growing controversy over this understanding, and the relative addictive safety of these agents in this population is being questioned.  Sedating antihistamines, herbal agents like chamomile tea or melatonin (major chemical that regulates the sleep wake cycle in the brain) are all helpful.  Off-label use of sedating antidepressants like trazodone, mirtazapine, amitriptyline and doxepin can be effective. There has been a recent upsurge in the off-label use of quetiapine for insomnia.  Remelteon is a unique, recently introduced sleep agent that acts through melatonin brain receptors in regulating the circadian clock and promoting activation of the sleep centers of the brain.  

One must not ignore the non-pharmacologic treatment of insomnia. Sleep hygiene must be emphasized.  A quiet, cool, darkened sleep area is essential.  Minimize if not cease all caffeine use.  Avoid television exposure at least 30 to 60 minutes before sleep onset time.  Quiet reading is most helpful in allowing the brain to cool off after a stimulating and busy day.  Regular exercise is very beneficial in promoting healthy sleep cycles but should be performed earlier in the day and not in the evening or night time.

8. Psychosis
The psychotic addict poses another clinical puzzle.  Cocaine, amphetamine (speed), methamphetamine (meth, crank, ice), LSD (acid) and other hallucinogen-induced psychotic states are usually short-lived and should not present a persistent problem during early and mid recovery.  Recently, there have been troubling reports of schizophrenia-like psychoses attributed to marijuana abuse (12). Whether the marijuana triggered the appearance of a premorbid condition and/or altered brain biology to cause this disorder is currently being debated. If the psychotic symptoms clear within a month or two, the appropriate diagnosis would be drug-induced psychosis.

As one can aptly see, the treating psychiatrist or physician is faced with a variety of therapeutic dilemmas.  Can you begin pharmacologic management of the mood or anxiety disorder while the patient is still abusing substances? Ideally, the answer should be no.  The biological effects of drugs on brain structure and function represent a clinical wild card.  How long will it take for the brain to return to its pre-abuse homeostatic state?  How does a brain still under the neurochemical influence of drugs of abuse respond to psychotropic medications?  Is such a medication trial a fair one?  When we prescribe for a brain that is still reeling from the effects of drug abuse, how do we know if the active effects of the medication are targeting the psychiatric symptoms or interacting with drug abuse induced dysfunctional brain cells? In fact, once the brain has recovered from the effects of drug abuse, we may decide to choose a different psychiatric medication, alter the dose of the medication or discontinue medication.

One cannot leave this discussion without further discussing the toxic effects of drugs of abuse on the human brain. From the microscopic cerebral hemorrhages due to cocaine (13) to the cellular toxicity of alcohol and MDMA (14), the ultimate impact on mental function can be varied and subtle. Our technology is not advanced enough to adequately track the damaging effects. Nevertheless, after extensive substance abuse the brain is not the same organ.  How much this influences recovery and the ability to return to meaningful life is still unclear.  It would be ideal to provide extensive neuropsychological testing to those in recovery, but this remains impractical from a financial standpoint. 

D. After Thoughts: Lessons Learned
Despite all the burgeoning knowledge about the biology and treatment of drug addiction, the success record remains disappointing.  What contributes to this outcome? An addict can spend 28 days (duration actually determined by insurance reimbursement parameters and not clinical need) at a top-notch treatment facility only to fall miserably into relapse upon return home.  We can administer high tech medications and see the same disappointing results.  We can wholeheartedly support 12 step recovery but still see failure rates that are unacceptable.

The answer to this dilemma may not be as complicated as one would think.  Recovery from addiction requires that the brain and the psyche have ample time to heal free of drugs, both biologically and psychologically.  This can be next to impossible in many outpatient settings.  There is much too much illicit drug availability coupled with societal pressures.  But if we can isolate the individual from the drugs and the drug scene, we have a much better chance of success. Thus, the ancient tincture of time becomes a critical variable for recovery.

How can these goals be accomplished? It requires adequate funding to provide the types of treatment facilities necessary.  It requires funding to allow for the detection of substance abuse in the early school years through student drug testing and substance abuse education of teachers and parents. It requires the ability to identify children and adolescents at risk and the ability to then provide treatment.  It requires that we directly address the societal issues that breed addiction. 

Nancy Reagan’s just say no commentary meant that we have the responsibility to be empowered and state unequivocally that we know better what is best for our children so that we can protect this generation and generations to come. 

Biography
David A. Gross, MD, Distinguished Fellow of the American Psychiatric Association

Dr. David gross is the chair of the international scientific and medical forum on drug abuse. Dr gross has devoted the bulk of his career to the treatment and prevention of drug abuse. He is in the private practice of psychiatry in delray beach, florida, a distinguished fellow of the american psychiatric society, and past president of the florida psychiatric society. Dr. Gross’ numerous publications and lectures have reflected his interests in the psychobiology of behavior.

Conflict of Interest Statement
I declare that I have no proprietary, financial, professional or other personal interest of any nature or kind in any product, service and/or company that could be construed as influencing the position presented in, or the review of, the manuscript entitled except for the following:

     Promotional speaking faculty for Wyeth, Glaxo, Lilly, Takeda, Sepracor pharmaceutical companies.

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